Motivation
Motivation
is a psychological feature that arouses an organism to act towards a
desired goal and elicits, controls, and sustains certain goal directed
behaviors. It can be considered a driving force; a psychological one that
compels or reinforces an action toward a desired goal. For example,
hunger is a motivation that elicits a desire to
eat.
Motivation
has been shown to have roots in physiological, behavioral, cognitive, and social
areas. Motivation may be rooted in a basic impulse to optimize well-being,
minimize physical pain and maximize pleasure. It can also originate from
specific physical needs such as eating, sleeping or resting, and
sex.
Motivation
is an inner drive to behave or act in a certain manner. It's the difference
between waking up before dawn to pound the pavement and lazing around the house
all day. These inner conditions such as wishes, desires, goals, activate to move
in a particular direction in behavior.
In
summary, motivation can be defined as the purpose for, or psychological
cause of, an action
Types of theories and
models
Mono-motivational
theories
A class of
theories about why people do things seeks to reduce the number of factors down
to one and explain all behaviour through that one factor. For example,
economics has been criticized for using self-interest as a
mono-motivational theory.
Mono-motivational theories are often criticized for being too reductive or too
abstract.
Conscious and
unconscious motivations
A number of motivational theories
emphasize the distinction between conscious and unconscious motivations. In
evolutionary psychology, the "ultimate", unconscious motivation may be a cold
evolutionary calculation, the conscious motivation could be more benign or even
positive emotions. For example, while it may be in the best interest of a male's
genes to have multiple partners and thus break up with or divorce one before
moving onto the next, the conscious rationalization could be, "I loved her at
the time".
Freud is associated with the idea
that human beings have many unconscious motivations that cause them to make
important decisions because of these unconscious
forces, such as choosing a partner.
Non-psychological
theories
Platonic theory of
motivation
In the Republic, Plato advances a
tri-partite theory of the soul, which consists of three parts: reason, spirit
and appetite. All parts of the soul have desires, however not all desires are
the same. Desires take many different forms and have many different responses or
results.
Machiavellianism
Machiavellism argues that human
beings are motivated to seek power and status above all. Modern research argues
that people who are high in this trait do indeed seek power and money, and are
willing to use others as instruments towards that end.
Psychological
theories and models
Rational
motivations
The idea that human beings are
rational and human behaviour is guided by reason is an old one, however recent
research (on satisficing for example) has significantly undermined the idea of
homo economicus or of perfect rationality in favour of a more bounded
rationality. The field of behavioural economics is particularly concerned
with the limits of rationality in economic agents.
Intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation
Motivation can be divided into
two types: intrinsic (internal) motivation and extrinsic (external)
motivation.
Intrinsic
motivation
Intrinsic motivation refers to
motivation that is driven by an interest or enjoyment in the task itself, and
exists within the individual rather than relying on external pressures or a
desire for reward. Intrinsic motivation has been studied since the early 1970s.
Students who are intrinsically motivated are more likely to engage in the task
willingly as well as work to improve their skills, which will increase their
capabilities. Students are likely to be intrinsically motivated if
they:
attribute their educational
results to factors under their own control, also known as
autonomy
believe they have the skills to
be effective agents in reaching their desired goals, also known as self-efficacy
beliefs
are interested in mastering a
topic, not just in achieving good grades
Extrinsic
motivation
Extrinsic motivation refers to
the performance of an activity in order to attain an outcome, whether or not
that activity is also intrinsically motivated. Extrinsic motivation comes from
outside of the individual. Common extrinsic motivations are rewards (for example
money or grades) for showing the desired behavior, and the threat of punishment
following misbehavior. Competition is in an extrinsic motivator because it
encourages the performer to win and to beat others, not simply to enjoy the
intrinsic rewards of the activity. A cheering crowd and the desire to win a
trophy are also extrinsic incentives.
Comparison of intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation
Social psychological research has
indicated that extrinsic rewards can lead to over justification and a subsequent
reduction in intrinsic motivation. In one study demonstrating this effect,
children who expected to be (and were) rewarded with a ribbon and a gold star
for drawing pictures spent less time playing with the drawing materials in
subsequent observations than children who were assigned to an unexpected reward
condition. While the provision of extrinsic rewards might reduce the
desirability of an activity, the use of extrinsic constraints, such as the
threat of punishment, against performing an activity has actually been found to
increase one's intrinsic interest in that activity. In one study, when children
were given mild threats against playing with an attractive toy, it was found
that the threat actually served to increase the child's interest in the toy,
which was previously undesirable to the child in the absence of
threat.
For those children who received
no extrinsic reward, self determination theory proposes that extrinsic
motivation can be internalized by the individual if the task fits with their
values and beliefs and therefore helps to fulfill their basic psychological
needs.
Operant
conditioning
Operant conditioning a term
coined by B.F. Skinner, is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and
punishments for behaviour. Skinner believed that internal thoughts and
motivations could not be used to explain behaviour; instead to look at external,
observable causes of human behaviour. His theory explained how we acquire the
range of learned behaviors we exhibit each and every day.
Push and pull
This model is usually used when
discussing motivation within the context of tourism. Push factors determine the
desire to go on holiday, whereas pull factors determine the choice of
destination. Push motives are connected with internal forces, for example the
need for relaxation or escapism, while pull factors are the external factors,
such as landscape, cultural image or the climate of a destination, that induce a
traveller to visit a certain location. Push factors can be stimulated by
external and situational aspects of motivation in the shape of pull factors.
Then again pull factors are issues that can arise from a location itself and
therefore ‘push’ an individual to choose to experience it. Since then, a large
number of theories have been developed over the years in many studies there is
no single theory that illustrates all motivational aspects of travelling. Many
researchers have highlighted that because several motives may occur at the same
time it should not be assumed that only one motive drives an individual to
perform an action, as was presumed in previous studies. On the other hand, since
people are not able to satisfy all their needs at once, they usually seek to
satisfy some or a few of them.
Self-control
The self-control aspect of
motivation is increasingly considered to be a subset of emotional intelligence
it is suggested that although a person may be classed as highly intelligent (as
measured by many traditional intelligence tests), they may remain unmotivated to
pursue intellectual endeavours. Vrooms expectancy theory provides an
account of when people may decide to exert self-control in pursuit of a
particular goal.
Drives
A drive or desire can be
described as a deficiency or need that activates behavior that is aimed at a
goal or an incentive. These drives are thought to originate within the
individual and may not require external stimuli to encourage the behavior. Basic
drives could be sparked by deficiencies such as hunger, which motivates a person
to seek food whereas more subtle drives might be the desire for praise and
approval, which motivates a person to behave in a manner pleasing to others.
Another basic drive is the sexual drive which like food motivates us because it
is essential to our survival. The desire for sex is wired deep into the brain of
all human beings as glands secrete hormones that travel through the blood to the
brain and stimulates the onset of sexual desire. The hormone involved in the
initial onset of sexual desire is called dihydroepiandosterone (DHEA). The
hormonal basis of both men and women's sex drives is testosterone. Men naturally
have more testosterone than women do and so are more likely than woman to think
about sex, have sexual fantasies, seek sex and sexual variety (whether positions
or partners), masturbate, want sex at an early point in a relationship,
sacrifice other things for sex, have permissive attitudes for sex, and complain
about low sex drive in their partners.
By contrast, the role of
extrinsic rewards and stimuli can be seen in the example of training animals by
giving them treats when they perform a trick correctly. The treat motivates the
animals to perform the trick consistently, even later when the treat is removed
from the process.
Incentive
theory
A reward, tangible or
intangible, is presented after the occurrence of an action (i.e. behavior) with
the intention of causing the behavior to occur again. This is done by
associating positive meaning to the behavior. Studies show that if the person
receives the reward immediately, the effect is greater, and decreases as delay
lengthens. Repetitive action-reward combination can cause the action to become
habit. Motivation comes from two sources: oneself, and other people. These two
sources are called intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation,
respectively.
Reinforcers and
reinforcement principles of behavior differ from the hypothetical construct
of reward. A reinforcer is any stimulus change following a response that
increases the future frequency or magnitude of that response, therefore the
cognitive approach is certainly the way forward as in 1973 Maslow described it
as being the golden pineapple. Positive reinforcement is demonstrated by an
increase in the future frequency or magnitude of a response due to in the past
being followed contingently by a reinforcing stimulus. Negative reinforcement
involves stimulus change consisting of the removal of an aversive stimulus
following a response. Positive reinforcement involves a stimulus change
consisting of the presentation or magnification of a positive stimulus following
a response. From this perspective, motivation is mediated by environmental
events, and the concept of distinguishing between intrinsic and extrinsic forces
is irrelevant.
Applying proper motivational
techniques can be much harder than it seems. Steven Kerr notes that when
creating a reward system, it can be easy to reward A, while hoping for B, and in
the process, reap harmful effects that can jeopardize your
goals.
Incentive theory in psychology
treats motivation and behaviour of the individual as they are influenced by
beliefs, such as engaging in activities that are expected to be profitable.
Incentive theory is promoted by behavioural psychologists, such as B.F. Skinner
and literalized by behaviorists, especially by Skinner in his philosophy of
Radical behaviourism, to mean that a person's actions always have social
ramifications: and if actions are positively received people are more likely to
act in this manner, or if negatively received people are less likely to act in
this manner.
Incentive theory distinguishes
itself from other motivation theories, such as drive theory, in the direction of
the motivation. In incentive theory, stimuli "attract", to use the term
above, a person towards them, as opposed to the body seeking to reestablish
homeastasis and pushing towards the stimulus. In terms of behaviorism,
incentive theory involves positive reinforcement the reinforcing stimulus
has been conditioned to make the person happier. For instance, a person knows
that eating food, drinking water, or gaining social capital will make them
happier. As opposed to in drive theory, which involves negative
reinforcement: a stimulus has been associated with the removal of the
punishment —the lack of homeostasis in the body. For example, a person has
come to know that if they eat when hungry, it will eliminate that negative
feeling of hunger or if they drink when thirsty, it will eliminate that negative
feeling of thirst.
Escape-seeking dichotomy
model
Escapism and seeking are major
factors influencing decision making. Escapism is a need to breakaway from a
daily life routine, turning on the television and watching an adventure film,
whereas seeking is described as the desire to learn, turning on the television
to watch a documentary. Both motivations have some interpersonal and personal
facets for example individuals would like to escape from family problems
(personal) or from problems with work colleagues (interpersonal). This model can
also be easily adapted with regard to different studies.
Drive-reduction
theory
There are a number of drive
theories. The Drive Reduction Theory grows out of the concept that
people have certain biological drives, such as hunger. As time passes the
strength of the drive increases if it is not satisfied (in this case by eating).
Upon satisfying a drive the drive's strength is reduced. The theory is based on
diverse ideas from the theories of Freud to the ideas of feedback control
systems, such as a thermostat.
Drive theory has some intuitive
or folk validity. For instance when preparing food, the drive model appears to
be compatible with sensations of rising hunger as the food is prepared, and,
after the food has been consumed, a decrease in subjective hunger. There are
several problems, however, that leave the validity of drive reduction open for
debate. The first problem is that it does not explain how secondary reinforcers
reduce drive. For example, money satisfies no biological or psychological needs,
but a pay check appears to reduce drive through second order
conditioning. Secondly, a drive, such as hunger, is viewed as having a
"desire" to eat, making the drive a homuncular being—a feature criticized as
simply moving the fundamental problem behind this "small man" and his
desires.
Drive reduction theory cannot be
a complete theory of behavior, or a hungry human could not prepare a meal
without eating the food before he finished cooking it. The ability of drive
theory to cope with all kinds of behavior, from not satisfying a drive (by
adding on other traits such as restraint), or adding additional drives for
"tasty" food, which combine with drives for food in order to explain cooking
render it hard to test.
Cognitive
dissonance theory
Suggested by Leon Festinger,
cognitive dissonance occurs when an individual experiences some degree of
discomfort resulting from an inconsistency between two cognitions: their views
on the world around them, and their own personal feelings and actions. For
example, a consumer may seek to reassure himself regarding a purchase, feeling,
in retrospect, that another decision may have been preferable. His feeling that
another purchase would have been preferable is inconsistent with his action of
purchasing the item. The difference between his feelings and beliefs causes
dissonance, so he seeks to reassure himself.
While not a theory of motivation,
per se, the theory of cognitive dissonance proposes that people have a
motivational drive
to reduce dissonance. The cognitive miser perspective makes people want to justify things in a simple way
in order to reduce the effort they put into cognition. They do this by changing
their attitudes, beliefs, or actions, rather than facing the inconsistencies,
because dissonance is a mental strain. Dissonance is also reduced by justifying,
blaming, and denying. It is one of the most influential and extensively studied
theories in social psychology.
Need theories
Motivation,
as defined by Pritchard and Ashwood, is the process used to allocate energy to
maximize the satisfaction of needs
is a psychological feature that arouses an organism to act towards a
desired goal and elicits, controls, and sustains certain goal directed
behaviors. It can be considered a driving force; a psychological one that
compels or reinforces an action toward a desired goal. For example,
hunger is a motivation that elicits a desire to
eat.
Motivation
has been shown to have roots in physiological, behavioral, cognitive, and social
areas. Motivation may be rooted in a basic impulse to optimize well-being,
minimize physical pain and maximize pleasure. It can also originate from
specific physical needs such as eating, sleeping or resting, and
sex.
Motivation
is an inner drive to behave or act in a certain manner. It's the difference
between waking up before dawn to pound the pavement and lazing around the house
all day. These inner conditions such as wishes, desires, goals, activate to move
in a particular direction in behavior.
In
summary, motivation can be defined as the purpose for, or psychological
cause of, an action
Types of theories and
models
Mono-motivational
theories
A class of
theories about why people do things seeks to reduce the number of factors down
to one and explain all behaviour through that one factor. For example,
economics has been criticized for using self-interest as a
mono-motivational theory.
Mono-motivational theories are often criticized for being too reductive or too
abstract.
Conscious and
unconscious motivations
A number of motivational theories
emphasize the distinction between conscious and unconscious motivations. In
evolutionary psychology, the "ultimate", unconscious motivation may be a cold
evolutionary calculation, the conscious motivation could be more benign or even
positive emotions. For example, while it may be in the best interest of a male's
genes to have multiple partners and thus break up with or divorce one before
moving onto the next, the conscious rationalization could be, "I loved her at
the time".
Freud is associated with the idea
that human beings have many unconscious motivations that cause them to make
important decisions because of these unconscious
forces, such as choosing a partner.
Non-psychological
theories
Platonic theory of
motivation
In the Republic, Plato advances a
tri-partite theory of the soul, which consists of three parts: reason, spirit
and appetite. All parts of the soul have desires, however not all desires are
the same. Desires take many different forms and have many different responses or
results.
Machiavellianism
Machiavellism argues that human
beings are motivated to seek power and status above all. Modern research argues
that people who are high in this trait do indeed seek power and money, and are
willing to use others as instruments towards that end.
Psychological
theories and models
Rational
motivations
The idea that human beings are
rational and human behaviour is guided by reason is an old one, however recent
research (on satisficing for example) has significantly undermined the idea of
homo economicus or of perfect rationality in favour of a more bounded
rationality. The field of behavioural economics is particularly concerned
with the limits of rationality in economic agents.
Intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation
Motivation can be divided into
two types: intrinsic (internal) motivation and extrinsic (external)
motivation.
Intrinsic
motivation
Intrinsic motivation refers to
motivation that is driven by an interest or enjoyment in the task itself, and
exists within the individual rather than relying on external pressures or a
desire for reward. Intrinsic motivation has been studied since the early 1970s.
Students who are intrinsically motivated are more likely to engage in the task
willingly as well as work to improve their skills, which will increase their
capabilities. Students are likely to be intrinsically motivated if
they:
attribute their educational
results to factors under their own control, also known as
autonomy
believe they have the skills to
be effective agents in reaching their desired goals, also known as self-efficacy
beliefs
are interested in mastering a
topic, not just in achieving good grades
Extrinsic
motivation
Extrinsic motivation refers to
the performance of an activity in order to attain an outcome, whether or not
that activity is also intrinsically motivated. Extrinsic motivation comes from
outside of the individual. Common extrinsic motivations are rewards (for example
money or grades) for showing the desired behavior, and the threat of punishment
following misbehavior. Competition is in an extrinsic motivator because it
encourages the performer to win and to beat others, not simply to enjoy the
intrinsic rewards of the activity. A cheering crowd and the desire to win a
trophy are also extrinsic incentives.
Comparison of intrinsic and
extrinsic motivation
Social psychological research has
indicated that extrinsic rewards can lead to over justification and a subsequent
reduction in intrinsic motivation. In one study demonstrating this effect,
children who expected to be (and were) rewarded with a ribbon and a gold star
for drawing pictures spent less time playing with the drawing materials in
subsequent observations than children who were assigned to an unexpected reward
condition. While the provision of extrinsic rewards might reduce the
desirability of an activity, the use of extrinsic constraints, such as the
threat of punishment, against performing an activity has actually been found to
increase one's intrinsic interest in that activity. In one study, when children
were given mild threats against playing with an attractive toy, it was found
that the threat actually served to increase the child's interest in the toy,
which was previously undesirable to the child in the absence of
threat.
For those children who received
no extrinsic reward, self determination theory proposes that extrinsic
motivation can be internalized by the individual if the task fits with their
values and beliefs and therefore helps to fulfill their basic psychological
needs.
Operant
conditioning
Operant conditioning a term
coined by B.F. Skinner, is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and
punishments for behaviour. Skinner believed that internal thoughts and
motivations could not be used to explain behaviour; instead to look at external,
observable causes of human behaviour. His theory explained how we acquire the
range of learned behaviors we exhibit each and every day.
Push and pull
This model is usually used when
discussing motivation within the context of tourism. Push factors determine the
desire to go on holiday, whereas pull factors determine the choice of
destination. Push motives are connected with internal forces, for example the
need for relaxation or escapism, while pull factors are the external factors,
such as landscape, cultural image or the climate of a destination, that induce a
traveller to visit a certain location. Push factors can be stimulated by
external and situational aspects of motivation in the shape of pull factors.
Then again pull factors are issues that can arise from a location itself and
therefore ‘push’ an individual to choose to experience it. Since then, a large
number of theories have been developed over the years in many studies there is
no single theory that illustrates all motivational aspects of travelling. Many
researchers have highlighted that because several motives may occur at the same
time it should not be assumed that only one motive drives an individual to
perform an action, as was presumed in previous studies. On the other hand, since
people are not able to satisfy all their needs at once, they usually seek to
satisfy some or a few of them.
Self-control
The self-control aspect of
motivation is increasingly considered to be a subset of emotional intelligence
it is suggested that although a person may be classed as highly intelligent (as
measured by many traditional intelligence tests), they may remain unmotivated to
pursue intellectual endeavours. Vrooms expectancy theory provides an
account of when people may decide to exert self-control in pursuit of a
particular goal.
Drives
A drive or desire can be
described as a deficiency or need that activates behavior that is aimed at a
goal or an incentive. These drives are thought to originate within the
individual and may not require external stimuli to encourage the behavior. Basic
drives could be sparked by deficiencies such as hunger, which motivates a person
to seek food whereas more subtle drives might be the desire for praise and
approval, which motivates a person to behave in a manner pleasing to others.
Another basic drive is the sexual drive which like food motivates us because it
is essential to our survival. The desire for sex is wired deep into the brain of
all human beings as glands secrete hormones that travel through the blood to the
brain and stimulates the onset of sexual desire. The hormone involved in the
initial onset of sexual desire is called dihydroepiandosterone (DHEA). The
hormonal basis of both men and women's sex drives is testosterone. Men naturally
have more testosterone than women do and so are more likely than woman to think
about sex, have sexual fantasies, seek sex and sexual variety (whether positions
or partners), masturbate, want sex at an early point in a relationship,
sacrifice other things for sex, have permissive attitudes for sex, and complain
about low sex drive in their partners.
By contrast, the role of
extrinsic rewards and stimuli can be seen in the example of training animals by
giving them treats when they perform a trick correctly. The treat motivates the
animals to perform the trick consistently, even later when the treat is removed
from the process.
Incentive
theory
A reward, tangible or
intangible, is presented after the occurrence of an action (i.e. behavior) with
the intention of causing the behavior to occur again. This is done by
associating positive meaning to the behavior. Studies show that if the person
receives the reward immediately, the effect is greater, and decreases as delay
lengthens. Repetitive action-reward combination can cause the action to become
habit. Motivation comes from two sources: oneself, and other people. These two
sources are called intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation,
respectively.
Reinforcers and
reinforcement principles of behavior differ from the hypothetical construct
of reward. A reinforcer is any stimulus change following a response that
increases the future frequency or magnitude of that response, therefore the
cognitive approach is certainly the way forward as in 1973 Maslow described it
as being the golden pineapple. Positive reinforcement is demonstrated by an
increase in the future frequency or magnitude of a response due to in the past
being followed contingently by a reinforcing stimulus. Negative reinforcement
involves stimulus change consisting of the removal of an aversive stimulus
following a response. Positive reinforcement involves a stimulus change
consisting of the presentation or magnification of a positive stimulus following
a response. From this perspective, motivation is mediated by environmental
events, and the concept of distinguishing between intrinsic and extrinsic forces
is irrelevant.
Applying proper motivational
techniques can be much harder than it seems. Steven Kerr notes that when
creating a reward system, it can be easy to reward A, while hoping for B, and in
the process, reap harmful effects that can jeopardize your
goals.
Incentive theory in psychology
treats motivation and behaviour of the individual as they are influenced by
beliefs, such as engaging in activities that are expected to be profitable.
Incentive theory is promoted by behavioural psychologists, such as B.F. Skinner
and literalized by behaviorists, especially by Skinner in his philosophy of
Radical behaviourism, to mean that a person's actions always have social
ramifications: and if actions are positively received people are more likely to
act in this manner, or if negatively received people are less likely to act in
this manner.
Incentive theory distinguishes
itself from other motivation theories, such as drive theory, in the direction of
the motivation. In incentive theory, stimuli "attract", to use the term
above, a person towards them, as opposed to the body seeking to reestablish
homeastasis and pushing towards the stimulus. In terms of behaviorism,
incentive theory involves positive reinforcement the reinforcing stimulus
has been conditioned to make the person happier. For instance, a person knows
that eating food, drinking water, or gaining social capital will make them
happier. As opposed to in drive theory, which involves negative
reinforcement: a stimulus has been associated with the removal of the
punishment —the lack of homeostasis in the body. For example, a person has
come to know that if they eat when hungry, it will eliminate that negative
feeling of hunger or if they drink when thirsty, it will eliminate that negative
feeling of thirst.
Escape-seeking dichotomy
model
Escapism and seeking are major
factors influencing decision making. Escapism is a need to breakaway from a
daily life routine, turning on the television and watching an adventure film,
whereas seeking is described as the desire to learn, turning on the television
to watch a documentary. Both motivations have some interpersonal and personal
facets for example individuals would like to escape from family problems
(personal) or from problems with work colleagues (interpersonal). This model can
also be easily adapted with regard to different studies.
Drive-reduction
theory
There are a number of drive
theories. The Drive Reduction Theory grows out of the concept that
people have certain biological drives, such as hunger. As time passes the
strength of the drive increases if it is not satisfied (in this case by eating).
Upon satisfying a drive the drive's strength is reduced. The theory is based on
diverse ideas from the theories of Freud to the ideas of feedback control
systems, such as a thermostat.
Drive theory has some intuitive
or folk validity. For instance when preparing food, the drive model appears to
be compatible with sensations of rising hunger as the food is prepared, and,
after the food has been consumed, a decrease in subjective hunger. There are
several problems, however, that leave the validity of drive reduction open for
debate. The first problem is that it does not explain how secondary reinforcers
reduce drive. For example, money satisfies no biological or psychological needs,
but a pay check appears to reduce drive through second order
conditioning. Secondly, a drive, such as hunger, is viewed as having a
"desire" to eat, making the drive a homuncular being—a feature criticized as
simply moving the fundamental problem behind this "small man" and his
desires.
Drive reduction theory cannot be
a complete theory of behavior, or a hungry human could not prepare a meal
without eating the food before he finished cooking it. The ability of drive
theory to cope with all kinds of behavior, from not satisfying a drive (by
adding on other traits such as restraint), or adding additional drives for
"tasty" food, which combine with drives for food in order to explain cooking
render it hard to test.
Cognitive
dissonance theory
Suggested by Leon Festinger,
cognitive dissonance occurs when an individual experiences some degree of
discomfort resulting from an inconsistency between two cognitions: their views
on the world around them, and their own personal feelings and actions. For
example, a consumer may seek to reassure himself regarding a purchase, feeling,
in retrospect, that another decision may have been preferable. His feeling that
another purchase would have been preferable is inconsistent with his action of
purchasing the item. The difference between his feelings and beliefs causes
dissonance, so he seeks to reassure himself.
While not a theory of motivation,
per se, the theory of cognitive dissonance proposes that people have a
motivational drive
to reduce dissonance. The cognitive miser perspective makes people want to justify things in a simple way
in order to reduce the effort they put into cognition. They do this by changing
their attitudes, beliefs, or actions, rather than facing the inconsistencies,
because dissonance is a mental strain. Dissonance is also reduced by justifying,
blaming, and denying. It is one of the most influential and extensively studied
theories in social psychology.
Need theories
Motivation,
as defined by Pritchard and Ashwood, is the process used to allocate energy to
maximize the satisfaction of needs