Optimism
Optimism
is a mental attitude or world view that interprets situations and events as
being best (optimized), meaning that in some way for factors that may not be
fully comprehended, the present moment is in an optimum state. The concept is
typically extended to include the attitude of hope for future conditions
unfolding as optimal as well. The more broad concept of optimism is the
understanding that all of nature, past, present and future, operates by laws of
optimization along the lines of Hamilton's principle of optimization in the
realm of physics. This understanding, although criticized by counter views such
as pessimism, idealism and realism, leads to a state of mind that believes
everything is as it should be, and that the future will be as well. A common
idiom used to illustrate optimism versus pessimism is a glass with water at the
halfway point, where the optimist is said to see the glass as half full, but the
pessimist sees the glass as half empty.
The
word is originally derived from the Latin optimum, meaning "best." Being
optimistic, in the typical sense of the word, ultimately means one expects the
best possible outcome from any given situation. This is usually referred to in
psychology as dispositional optimism.
Researchers
sometimes operationalize the term differently depending on their research,
however. For example, Martin Seligman and his fellow researchers define it in
terms of explanatory style, which is based on the way one explains life events.
As for any trait characteristic, there are several ways to evaluate optimism,
such as various forms of the Life Orientation Test, for the original definition
of optimism, or the Attributional Style Questionnaire designed to test optimism
in terms of explanatory style.
While
the heritability of optimism is largely debatable, most researchers agree that
it seems to be a biological trait to some small degree, but it is also thought
that optimism has more to do with environmental factors, making it a largely
learned trait. It has also been suggested that optimism could appear to be a
hereditary trait because it is actually a manifestation of combined traits that
are mostly heritable, like intelligence, temperament and alcoholism. Optimism
may also be linked to health
Explanatory
style
Explanatory
style is different, though related to, the more traditional, narrower definition
of optimism. This broader concept is based on the theory that optimism and
pessimism are drawn from the particular way people explain events. There are
three dimensions within typical explanations, which include internal versus
external, stable versus unstable, and global versus specific. Optimistic
justifications toward negative experiences are attributed to factors outside the
self (external), are not likely to occur consistently (unstable), and are
limited specific life domains (specific). Positive experiences would be
optimistically labeled as the opposite: internal, stable,
global.
There is
much debate about the relationship between explanatory style and optimism. Some
researchers argue that there is not much difference at all; optimism is just the
lay term for what scientists call explanatory style. Others argue that
explanatory style is exclusive to its concept and should not be interchangeable
with optimism.
It is
generally thought that, though they should not be used interchangeably,
dispositional optimism and explanatory style are at least marginally related.
Ultimately, the problem is simply that more research must be done to either
define a "bridge" or further differentiate between these
concepts.
Philosophy
Philosophers
often link concept of optimism with the name of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, who
held that we live in the best of all possible worlds, or that God created a
physical universe that applies the laws of physics, which Voltaire famously
mocked in his satirical novel Candide. The philosophical pessimism of William
Godwin demonstrated perhaps even more optimism than Leibniz. He hoped that
society would eventually reach the state where calm reason would replace all
violence and force, that mind could eventually make matter subservient to it,
and that intelligence could discover the secret of immortality. Much of this
philosophy is exemplified in the Houyhnhnms of Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's
Travels.
Panglossianism
The term
"panglossianism" describes baseless optimism of the sort exemplified by the
beliefs of Pangloss from Voltaire's Candide, which are the opposite of his
fellow traveller Martin's pessimism and emphasis on free will. The phrase
"panglossian pessimism" has been used to describe the pessimistic position that,
since this is the best of all possible worlds, it is impossible for anything to
get any better.
The
panglossian paradigm is a term coined by Stephen Jay Gould and Richard Lewontin
to refer to the notion that everything has specifically adapted to suit specific
purposes. Instead, they argue, accidents and exaptation (the use of old features
for new purposes) play an important role in the process of evolution. Some other
scientists however argue the implication that many (or most) adaptionists are
panglossians is a straw man.
Why People
Believe Weird Things: Pseudoscience, Superstition, and Other Confusions of Our
Time Michael Shermer relates Frank J. Tipler to Voltaire's character Pangloss to
show how clever people deceive themselves. Shermer explores the psychology of
scholars and business men who give up their careers in their pursuit to
broadcast their paranormal beliefs. In his last chapter, added to the revised
version, Shermer explains that "smart people" can be more susceptible to
believing in weird things.
Optimalism
Optimalism,
as defined by Nicholas Rescher, holds that this universe exists because it is
better than the alternatives. While this philosophy does not exclude the
possibility of a deity, it also doesn't require one, and is compatible with
atheism. The positive psychologist Tal Ben-Shahar uses optimalism to mean
willingness to accept failure while remaining confident that success will
follow, a positive attitude he contrasts with negative perfectionism.
Perfectionism can be defined as a persistent compulsive drive toward
unattainable goals and valuation based solely in terms of accomplishment.
Perfectionists reject the realities and constraints of human ability. They
cannot accept failures, delaying any ambitious and productive behavior in fear
of failure again. This neuroticism can even lead to clinical depression and low
productivity. As an alternative to negative perfectionism Ben-Shahar suggests
the adoption of optimalism. Optimalism allows for failure in pursuit of a goal,
and expects that while the trend of activity will tend towards the positive it
is not necessary to always succeed while striving to attain goals. This basis in
reality prevents the optimalist from being overwhelmed in the face of failure.
Optimalists accept failures and also learn from them, which encourages further
pursuit of achievement. Dr. Tal Ben-Shahar believes that Optimalists and
Perfectionists show distinct different motives. Optimalists tend to have more
intrinsic, inward desires, with a motivation to learn. While perfectionists are
highly motivated by a need to consistently prove themselves
worthy.
Assessment
Life
Orientation Test (LOT)
Designed by
Scheier and Carver (1985), this is one of the more popular tests of optimism and
pessimism. There are eight measurements (and an additional four filler items),
with four positively ("In uncertain times, I usually expect the best") and four
negatively ("If something can go wrong for me, it will") worded items. The LOT
has been revised twice--once by the original creators (LOT-R) and also by Chang,
Maydeu-Olivares, and D'Zurilla as the Extended Life Orientation Test (ELOT). All
three are most commonly used because they are based on dispositional optimism,
which simply means expecting positive outcomes.
Attributional Style Questionnaire
(ASQ)
This
questionnaire created by Peterson et al. (1982) is based on the explanatory
style definition of optimism. It lists six positive and negative events ("you
have been looking for a job unsuccessfully for some time"), and asks the
respondents to record a possible cause for the event and rate the internality,
stability, and globality of the event. An optimistic person is one who perceives
good things happening to them as internal, stable, and global. There are several
modified versions of the ASQ including the Expanded Attributional Style
Questionnaire (EASQ), the Content Analysis of Verbatim Explanations (CAVE), and
the ASQ designed for testing the optimism for children.
Health
Research has
emerged showing the relationships between several psychological constructs and
health. Optimism is one of these concepts and has been shown to explain between
5–10% of the variation in the likelihood of developing some health conditions
(correlation coefficients between .20 and .30), notably including cardiovascular
disease, stroke, depression, and cancer.
Furthermore,
optimists have been shown to live healthier lifestyles which may influence
disease. For example, optimists smoke less, are more physically active, consume
more fruit, vegetables and whole-grain bread, and consume more moderate amounts
of alcohol.
The
relationship between optimism and health has also been studied with regards to
physical symptoms, coping strategies and negative affect for those suffering
from rheumatoid arthritis, asthma, and fibromyalgia. It has been found that
among individuals with these diseases, optimists are not more likely than
pessimists to report pain alleviation due to coping strategies, despite
differences in psychological well-being between the two groups. A meta-analysis
has confirmed the assumption that optimism is related to psychological
well-being: “Put simply, optimists emerge from difficult circumstances with less
distress than do pessimists.”[31] Furthermore, the correlation appears to be
attributable to coping style: “That is, optimists seem intent on facing problems
head-on, taking active and constructive steps to solve their problems;
pessimists are more likely to abandon their effort to attain their
goals.”
It should be
noted that research to date has demonstrated that optimists are less likely to
have certain diseases or develop certain diseases over time. By comparison,
research has not yet been able to demonstrate the ability to change an
individual's level of optimism through psychological intervention, and thereby
alter the course of disease or likelihood for development of
disease.
is a mental attitude or world view that interprets situations and events as
being best (optimized), meaning that in some way for factors that may not be
fully comprehended, the present moment is in an optimum state. The concept is
typically extended to include the attitude of hope for future conditions
unfolding as optimal as well. The more broad concept of optimism is the
understanding that all of nature, past, present and future, operates by laws of
optimization along the lines of Hamilton's principle of optimization in the
realm of physics. This understanding, although criticized by counter views such
as pessimism, idealism and realism, leads to a state of mind that believes
everything is as it should be, and that the future will be as well. A common
idiom used to illustrate optimism versus pessimism is a glass with water at the
halfway point, where the optimist is said to see the glass as half full, but the
pessimist sees the glass as half empty.
The
word is originally derived from the Latin optimum, meaning "best." Being
optimistic, in the typical sense of the word, ultimately means one expects the
best possible outcome from any given situation. This is usually referred to in
psychology as dispositional optimism.
Researchers
sometimes operationalize the term differently depending on their research,
however. For example, Martin Seligman and his fellow researchers define it in
terms of explanatory style, which is based on the way one explains life events.
As for any trait characteristic, there are several ways to evaluate optimism,
such as various forms of the Life Orientation Test, for the original definition
of optimism, or the Attributional Style Questionnaire designed to test optimism
in terms of explanatory style.
While
the heritability of optimism is largely debatable, most researchers agree that
it seems to be a biological trait to some small degree, but it is also thought
that optimism has more to do with environmental factors, making it a largely
learned trait. It has also been suggested that optimism could appear to be a
hereditary trait because it is actually a manifestation of combined traits that
are mostly heritable, like intelligence, temperament and alcoholism. Optimism
may also be linked to health
Explanatory
style
Explanatory
style is different, though related to, the more traditional, narrower definition
of optimism. This broader concept is based on the theory that optimism and
pessimism are drawn from the particular way people explain events. There are
three dimensions within typical explanations, which include internal versus
external, stable versus unstable, and global versus specific. Optimistic
justifications toward negative experiences are attributed to factors outside the
self (external), are not likely to occur consistently (unstable), and are
limited specific life domains (specific). Positive experiences would be
optimistically labeled as the opposite: internal, stable,
global.
There is
much debate about the relationship between explanatory style and optimism. Some
researchers argue that there is not much difference at all; optimism is just the
lay term for what scientists call explanatory style. Others argue that
explanatory style is exclusive to its concept and should not be interchangeable
with optimism.
It is
generally thought that, though they should not be used interchangeably,
dispositional optimism and explanatory style are at least marginally related.
Ultimately, the problem is simply that more research must be done to either
define a "bridge" or further differentiate between these
concepts.
Philosophy
Philosophers
often link concept of optimism with the name of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, who
held that we live in the best of all possible worlds, or that God created a
physical universe that applies the laws of physics, which Voltaire famously
mocked in his satirical novel Candide. The philosophical pessimism of William
Godwin demonstrated perhaps even more optimism than Leibniz. He hoped that
society would eventually reach the state where calm reason would replace all
violence and force, that mind could eventually make matter subservient to it,
and that intelligence could discover the secret of immortality. Much of this
philosophy is exemplified in the Houyhnhnms of Jonathan Swift's Gulliver's
Travels.
Panglossianism
The term
"panglossianism" describes baseless optimism of the sort exemplified by the
beliefs of Pangloss from Voltaire's Candide, which are the opposite of his
fellow traveller Martin's pessimism and emphasis on free will. The phrase
"panglossian pessimism" has been used to describe the pessimistic position that,
since this is the best of all possible worlds, it is impossible for anything to
get any better.
The
panglossian paradigm is a term coined by Stephen Jay Gould and Richard Lewontin
to refer to the notion that everything has specifically adapted to suit specific
purposes. Instead, they argue, accidents and exaptation (the use of old features
for new purposes) play an important role in the process of evolution. Some other
scientists however argue the implication that many (or most) adaptionists are
panglossians is a straw man.
Why People
Believe Weird Things: Pseudoscience, Superstition, and Other Confusions of Our
Time Michael Shermer relates Frank J. Tipler to Voltaire's character Pangloss to
show how clever people deceive themselves. Shermer explores the psychology of
scholars and business men who give up their careers in their pursuit to
broadcast their paranormal beliefs. In his last chapter, added to the revised
version, Shermer explains that "smart people" can be more susceptible to
believing in weird things.
Optimalism
Optimalism,
as defined by Nicholas Rescher, holds that this universe exists because it is
better than the alternatives. While this philosophy does not exclude the
possibility of a deity, it also doesn't require one, and is compatible with
atheism. The positive psychologist Tal Ben-Shahar uses optimalism to mean
willingness to accept failure while remaining confident that success will
follow, a positive attitude he contrasts with negative perfectionism.
Perfectionism can be defined as a persistent compulsive drive toward
unattainable goals and valuation based solely in terms of accomplishment.
Perfectionists reject the realities and constraints of human ability. They
cannot accept failures, delaying any ambitious and productive behavior in fear
of failure again. This neuroticism can even lead to clinical depression and low
productivity. As an alternative to negative perfectionism Ben-Shahar suggests
the adoption of optimalism. Optimalism allows for failure in pursuit of a goal,
and expects that while the trend of activity will tend towards the positive it
is not necessary to always succeed while striving to attain goals. This basis in
reality prevents the optimalist from being overwhelmed in the face of failure.
Optimalists accept failures and also learn from them, which encourages further
pursuit of achievement. Dr. Tal Ben-Shahar believes that Optimalists and
Perfectionists show distinct different motives. Optimalists tend to have more
intrinsic, inward desires, with a motivation to learn. While perfectionists are
highly motivated by a need to consistently prove themselves
worthy.
Assessment
Life
Orientation Test (LOT)
Designed by
Scheier and Carver (1985), this is one of the more popular tests of optimism and
pessimism. There are eight measurements (and an additional four filler items),
with four positively ("In uncertain times, I usually expect the best") and four
negatively ("If something can go wrong for me, it will") worded items. The LOT
has been revised twice--once by the original creators (LOT-R) and also by Chang,
Maydeu-Olivares, and D'Zurilla as the Extended Life Orientation Test (ELOT). All
three are most commonly used because they are based on dispositional optimism,
which simply means expecting positive outcomes.
Attributional Style Questionnaire
(ASQ)
This
questionnaire created by Peterson et al. (1982) is based on the explanatory
style definition of optimism. It lists six positive and negative events ("you
have been looking for a job unsuccessfully for some time"), and asks the
respondents to record a possible cause for the event and rate the internality,
stability, and globality of the event. An optimistic person is one who perceives
good things happening to them as internal, stable, and global. There are several
modified versions of the ASQ including the Expanded Attributional Style
Questionnaire (EASQ), the Content Analysis of Verbatim Explanations (CAVE), and
the ASQ designed for testing the optimism for children.
Health
Research has
emerged showing the relationships between several psychological constructs and
health. Optimism is one of these concepts and has been shown to explain between
5–10% of the variation in the likelihood of developing some health conditions
(correlation coefficients between .20 and .30), notably including cardiovascular
disease, stroke, depression, and cancer.
Furthermore,
optimists have been shown to live healthier lifestyles which may influence
disease. For example, optimists smoke less, are more physically active, consume
more fruit, vegetables and whole-grain bread, and consume more moderate amounts
of alcohol.
The
relationship between optimism and health has also been studied with regards to
physical symptoms, coping strategies and negative affect for those suffering
from rheumatoid arthritis, asthma, and fibromyalgia. It has been found that
among individuals with these diseases, optimists are not more likely than
pessimists to report pain alleviation due to coping strategies, despite
differences in psychological well-being between the two groups. A meta-analysis
has confirmed the assumption that optimism is related to psychological
well-being: “Put simply, optimists emerge from difficult circumstances with less
distress than do pessimists.”[31] Furthermore, the correlation appears to be
attributable to coping style: “That is, optimists seem intent on facing problems
head-on, taking active and constructive steps to solve their problems;
pessimists are more likely to abandon their effort to attain their
goals.”
It should be
noted that research to date has demonstrated that optimists are less likely to
have certain diseases or develop certain diseases over time. By comparison,
research has not yet been able to demonstrate the ability to change an
individual's level of optimism through psychological intervention, and thereby
alter the course of disease or likelihood for development of
disease.